Introduction of Lumpy Skin Disease in Italy in 2025: health response, outbreak control and European perspectives
Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD; Contagious Nodular Dermatitis) is a highly infectious viral disease affecting cattle and buffalo, caused by a Capripoxvirus (EFSA, 2015; WOAH, 2023), closely related to the ovine and caprine poxviruses. Transmission occurs primarily via mechanical vectors, including hematophagous insects such as flies, mosquitoes, and ticks (Yesilbag et al., Di Giuseppe at al., 2023; WOAH, 2023), whereas direct animal-to-animal transmission plays a secondary role. LSD is classified within the European Union as a Category A disease under Regulation (EU) 2016/429 – Animal Health Law, denoting a pathogen normally absent from the EU, whose introduction mandates immediate eradication measures. This classification aligns LSD with other high-impact transboundary animal diseases, including equine infectious diseases, African swine fever, and foot-and-mouth disease
Within this regulatory and epidemiological context, early detection of suspect cases and the rapid activation of control measures are critical to limiting pathogen spread and mitigating the resulting veterinary and economic impact on the cattle sector. LSD does not pose a risk to human health; however, its consequences for livestock production can be substantial.
The 2025 outbreak in Italy represented the first occurrence of LSD in the European Union following the implementation of the Animal Health Law (EU 2016/429), occurring approximately a decade after the epidemic waves that affected several countries in south-eastern Europe starting in 2015. The Italian outbreak constituted a primary introduction of the virus into national territory and necessitated the simultaneous deployment of veterinary, regulatory, and operational instruments at both national and European levels. Consequently, the Italian experience provides a case study in integrated management of a vector-borne animal disease outbreak, within a context of high commercial mobility and epidemiological interconnectivity across borders.
Evolution of Lumpy Skin Disease in Europe and Initial Introduction in Italy, France, and Spain
Lumpy Skin Disease was first reported in Europe in 2015 (Beard, 2016; Tuppurainen et al., 2017), with outbreaks in Greece resulting from the progressive expansion of the virus from Turkey. In the following years, the disease spread rapidly across the Balkan region, affecting Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Serbia, Kosovo, Albania, and Montenegro, reaching an epidemic peak in 2016 with thousands of outbreaks reported during a single epidemic season.
The observed dissemination in south-eastern European countries was driven by a combination of ecological and epidemiological factors. In particular, high densities of competent vectors and climatic conditions favourable to their proliferation facilitated viral spread. Additionally, extensive or semi-free-range cattle production systems, characterised by prolonged outdoor exposure and frequent animal movements, contributed significantly to transmission dynamics.
From 2016 onwards, the European Union coordinated mass vaccination campaigns (EFSA, 2018; European Commission, 2017), complemented by enhanced surveillance, implementation of movement restrictions for cattle, and improvements in farm biosecurity. The combined application of these interventions led to a rapid reduction in disease incidence by 2017 and the substantial interruption of viral circulation in most affected countries by 2018.
Although Italy remained free from LSD during the initial waves, it strengthened veterinary surveillance early on, particularly through the monitoring of animal movements using integrated animal health information systems. Concurrently, awareness campaigns were conducted for stakeholders in the livestock sector, aiming to improve knowledge of the disease and the early recognition of clinical signs. This organisational and technical capacity provided the operational foundation that enabled the national veterinary system to respond rapidly to the introduction of LSD in 2025.
The first suspected case in Italy was reported on 20 June 2025 in an extensive beef cattle farm in Orani (Nuoro, Sardinia island). Diagnostic confirmation on 21 June marked the first official detection of LSD in the country, triggering the immediate implementation of procedures mandated under European and national animal health legislation. Initial epidemiological investigations suggested passive transport of hematophagous insects from North Africa, carried by favourable atmospheric currents, as a potential route of introduction. Other possible pathways, including recent animal movements, were not excluded.
Following confirmation by the National Reference Centre for Exotic Animal Diseases (CESME) at the Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise, Teramo (IZS-Te), containment measures were implemented through multilevel institutional coordination involving the European Commission, the Italian Ministry of Health, and regional and local veterinary services. This coordination enabled rapid information sharing and the timely activation of control measures, with the response system based on three operational pillars: immediate territorial restrictions, tracing of animal movements, and intensive clinical surveillance.
During 2025, LSD was also reported for the first time in other Western European countries. On 29 June 2025, a new outbreak was confirmed in France in a cattle farm in the Savoie department; following this event, part of the Aosta Valley region was included in the surveillance zone established by French authorities. Subsequently, on 1 October 2025, LSD was reported for the first time in Spain, in the Catalonia region.
These episodes highlighted that even previously disease-free areas remain vulnerable to viral introduction. Experiences in Greece and the Balkan countries, combined with recent outbreaks in Italy, France, and Spain, confirm that ecological, climatic, and production system factors (EFSA, 2018; Yesilbag et al., 2023) can facilitate disease spread in the European context, underlining the critical need for effective surveillance systems and coordinated veterinary responses across countries.
Epidemiological Investigations and Tracing Activities
Immediately following confirmation of the outbreak on 21 June 2025, comprehensive epidemiological investigations were initiated to reconstruct animal movements during the high-risk period for disease introduction, provisionally identified as the two months preceding the detection of the first suspected case. Tracing activities were supported by movement network analysis tools, including the T-Racing application (Candeloro et al., 2025), which enabled rapid reconstruction of epidemiological links between farms, identification of establishments epidemiologically connected to the outbreak, and prioritisation of control and surveillance activities.
Investigations revealed that the index farm had conducted two animal movements to farms in the Lombardy region, specifically in the provinces of Mantua and Cremona. Furthermore, during the same high-risk period, a total of 11,236 cattle were moved from Sardinia to 118 farms across the national territory. Based on these findings, epidemiological tracing of the affected establishments was immediately activated.
These investigations led to the confirmation, on 25 June 2025, of a single secondary outbreak in a beef cattle farm in Porto Mantovano (Mantua, Lombardy region), which had received animals from the primary outbreak farm during the identified high-risk period. All animals were culled and disposed of according to current regulations, and thorough cleaning and disinfection of facilities and equipment were conducted. Within the Lombardy restriction zones, 935 clinical visits were performed across 747 farms, with no further cases confirmed. The intensive surveillance effort effectively prevented secondary viral circulation in northern Italy, limiting disease spread to this single secondary episode.
Simultaneously, information campaigns targeting farm veterinarians, producer associations, and farmers were implemented to enhance early reporting capacity and the adoption of biosecurity measures at farm level.
From 27 to 28 June 2025, a mission by EUVET of the European Union was conducted, suggesting that virus introduction may have occurred up to three months prior to the identification of the first case. Surveillance activities covered 1,774 farms in Sardinia, with 62,799 animals examined, resulting in 79 confirmed outbreaks. In parallel, 1,520 farms in the rest of the national territory were inspected, with no evidence of infection detected.
On 3 July 2025, the remaining territory of Sardinia was designated as an “additional restriction zone”, in accordance with regional directives (Determination No. 710 of 03/07/2025) and EU delegated regulations (2023/361).
Overall, during 2025, over 9,000 clinical inspections were conducted in Italy, with more than 665,000 cattle subjected to health checks, including both national and cross-border tracing with France. These measures allowed the identification of 42 potential LSD-suspect establishments, all of which were laboratory-confirmed as disease-free.
The National Diagnostic System for Lumpy Skin Disease: IZS Network, CESME, and Molecular Characterisation
Official diagnosis of Lumpy Skin Disease in Italy (WOAH, 2023) is conducted through a structured national network comprising territorial veterinary services, the Istituti Zooprofilattici Sperimentali (IZSs), and the National Reference Centre for Exotic Animal Diseases (CESME) at the IZS of Abruzzo and Molise “G. Caporale” in Teramo.
Suspected samples are initially analysed by real-time PCR at the respective territorial IZS. Samples yielding positive or inconclusive results are subsequently confirmed at CESME using molecular assays validated to European standards, including virus isolation and genomic characterisation, providing essential support for epidemiological investigations and European-level surveillance activities.
Vaccination: Control Strategy
In light of the evolving epidemiological situation and the risk of further spread, the Italian Ministry of Health authorised the extraordinary use of emergency vaccination as a complementary measure to ongoing control actions, including movement restrictions, enhanced clinical surveillance, and strengthened on-farm biosecurity measures. This decision was implemented within a risk-based framework, considering the presence of competent vectors, the density of cattle holdings, and the potential sanitary and economic impacts associated with further disease dissemination.
Within this context, vaccination represented a key pillar of the 2025 LSD control strategy in Italy, contributing substantially to the reduction of viral circulation and the progressive elimination of outbreaks in Sardinia. A live attenuated vaccine based on the Neethling strain (Tuppurainen et al., 2017), produced by Onderstepoort Biological Products (South Africa), was employed. This vaccine had been successfully used in control programmes in south-eastern European countries between 2016 and 2017. It is capable of eliciting a robust immune response both at the individual and population level, reducing viraemia in vaccinated animals and, consequently, limiting vector-mediated virus transmission (EFSA, 2018).
The vaccination campaign was prioritised in Sardinia in the weeks immediately following confirmation of the first outbreak (late June–early July 2025), with the aim of achieving high immunisation coverage in cattle holdings located in affected and high-risk areas. Since the start of the campaign, a total of 231,883 animals have been vaccinated, reaching a vaccination coverage of 96.24% across 7,214 farms. Furthermore, following confirmation of an LSD outbreak in Albertville, in south-eastern France, the surveillance zone established by the French authorities extended to include part of the Aosta Valley region. In response to the risk of disease introduction from France and the inclusion of part of the region within the restricted area, the Aosta Valley implemented a preventive vaccination campaign covering the entire regional cattle population, starting in the weeks following the establishment of restriction zones (early July 2025). This resulted in a vaccination coverage of 96.65%, achieved through the vaccination of 24,896 animals across 801 farms.
Implementation of the vaccination programme required intensive organisational efforts by Veterinary Services, including logistical planning of vaccine administration, registration of vaccinated animals in the national information system, and post-vaccination monitoring. High compliance among farmers was a critical determinant of the campaign’s success, underscoring the importance of institutional communication and active stakeholder engagement. Simultaneously, the use of live attenuated vaccines had regulatory and trade implications, affecting conditions for export to third countries and necessitating constant coordination between sanitary authorities and international trade bodies to ensure continuity of trade and correct management of health certification.
Overall, the Italian experience confirmed that early vaccination, combined with high immunisation coverage, integrated surveillance, movement control, and biosecurity measures, represents the most effective tool for interrupting LSD transmission, highlighting the critical importance of structured institutional coordination in the management of vector-borne animal diseases.
Impact on the Cattle and Dairy Supply Chain
The 2025 LSD outbreak represented not only a veterinary emergency but also had substantial effects on the organisational, commercial, and economic aspects of the Italian cattle sector, with a particularly pronounced impact on the dairy industry in Sardinia.
Although the disease poses no risk to human health or food safety, the sanitary management of restricted zones necessitated precautionary measures that indirectly affected the continuity of production in affected farms. Animal movement restrictions and operational limitations within protection and surveillance areas influenced replacement herd management, production planning, and farm economic balance, generating a period of considerable managerial uncertainty.
From a commercial perspective, the outbreak caused temporary instability in national and international trade flows, driven both by sanitary restrictions and by perceived risk among trading partners. In particular, precautionary measures adopted by certain third countries, including the United Kingdom, led to the temporary suspension of live cattle imports and specific product categories, thereby increasing the complexity of certification and logistical procedures for sector operators.
In this context, institutional communication played a decisive role in clarifying the absence of risks to consumers and in maintaining market confidence. The coordination between veterinary services, regional authorities, and sector organisations ensured the continuity of processing activities and the regular marketing of dairy products, helping to mitigate the systemic impact of the emergency on the agri-livestock sector (EFSA, 2015; WOAH, 2023).
Overall Impact of LSD in Italy: A Comprehensive Reflection
The introduction of LSD had an impact that extended far beyond the number of reported outbreaks and culled animals. The management of the emergency placed the entire animal health system under considerable pressure, demanding extraordinary efforts in terms of human resources, organisational capacity, and operational coordination. The experience highlighted the importance of effective integration between epidemiological surveillance (EFSA, 2018), advanced information systems, and decision-making capabilities, while also underscoring the need to maintain rigorous attention to complex operational aspects, such as carcass disposal and the management of animal by-products.
A key factor in the successful management of the emergency was the active engagement of livestock sector stakeholders. Risk communication played a fundamental role in ensuring the timely dissemination of information regarding the disease and the preventive measures to be implemented at the farm level. Collaboration between Veterinary Services, on-farm veterinarians, industry associations, and farmers strengthened the early reporting of suspected clinical cases and facilitated the implementation of required sanitary measures.
In Sardinia, specific structural characteristics of the production system presented an additional operational challenge. A substantial proportion of the cattle population is reared under extensive or semi-extensive management, a system that complicates field-level health control activities. In particular, the identification, handling, and management of animals for clinical inspections, diagnostic sampling, and vaccination campaigns demanded significant organisational effort from Veterinary Services and close cooperation with farmers.
Drawing on the 2025 experience, vaccination emerges as a cornerstone for LSD control, yet it simultaneously requires careful planning, continuous updates to operational procedures, and strategic consideration of its integration into broader prevention plans. This must be undertaken without reducing the level of epidemiological surveillance or compromising attention to biosecurity measures and vector control.
Compensation and Economic Support Measures for Livestock Farms
Alongside sanitary measures, the management of the epidemic included economic support mechanisms for farms affected by restrictions and mandatory culling. In Sardinia, Regional Law no. 22/2025 allocated €18.2 million to ensure continuity of production and provide compensation for culled or non-movable animals, highlighting how the approach to LSD integrated animal health protection with economic sustainability.
Looking Ahead to 2026: What to Expect
Looking forward, 2026 presents a complex scenario. On one hand, the situation in Italy appears under control; on the other hand, the persistent epidemiological instability in parts of the Balkans, together with the recent emergence of outbreaks in France and Spain, confirms that LSD remains a tangible threat to Europe.
Given the current epidemiological situation, it is essential to maintain a high level of vigilance, supported by continuous risk reassessment of virus introduction, particularly in territories that were previously disease-free. In this context, the adoption of risk-based approaches is central, aimed at identifying and mitigating potential pathways for infection entry.
Vaccination continues to be an essential tool for controlling spread, but its application must be carefully considered and contextualised according to the specific risk level. This requires balancing short-term efficacy with medium-to long-term sustainability, considering the management of vaccinated animals and integration with structural prevention strategies.
From this perspective, a further strategic element could be the strengthening of veterinary cooperation with Mediterranean countries through coordinated vaccination campaigns in endemic territories, particularly in North Africa, as in the case of Tunisia. Such interventions would constitute an “extra-EU sanitary buffer” (personal communication, Dr Massimo Scacchia, IZSAM-Teramo), reducing infection pressure at Europe’s southern borders and the risk of new virus introductions into the EU. Approaches of this type, based on coordinated preventive interventions in neighbouring regions, have been discussed in the context of transboundary animal disease management and international veterinary cooperation (EFSA, 2018; WOAH, 2021; European Commission, 2023).
Furthermore, as a vector-borne disease, the strengthening of entomological surveillance activities plays a key role in the prevention and control of LSD spread. Monitoring vector populations, integrated with climatic models and risk mapping, can support the early identification of areas at higher risk of virus introduction and transmission. In this context, scientific cooperation with North African countries, particularly Tunisia and Libya, is essential to promote integrated surveillance systems and to support vaccination programmes in endemic areas, thereby reducing the risk of virus introduction into the European territory. However, the vector-borne nature of the disease makes direct control of vectors inherently challenging, highlighting the importance of integrated strategies based on surveillance, prevention, and coordinated international interventions.
In 2026, therefore, it will be necessary to balance surveillance capacity, including entomological surveillance, international cooperation, and continuous updating of operational tools to ensure a timely response to potential new introductions.
In conclusion, the Italian experience demonstrates that effective management of LSD combines advanced surveillance, timely vaccination, biosecurity measures, and structured institutional coordination. This experience provides a replicable model for other European contexts, illustrating how an integrated approach can protect animal health and the livestock sector, while preserving production continuity and economic security.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Dr Daria Di Sabatino and Dr Guido Di Donato for providing technical materials and for their critical review of the manuscript.
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Francesca Dall’Acqua, Alessandra Di Giuseppe
Centro Operativo Veterinario per l’Epidemiologia, Programmazione, Informazione e Analisi del Rischio (COVEPI), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale”, Teramo
